SATELLITE
In general, a satellite is anything that orbits something else, as, for example, the moon orbits the earth. In a communications context, a satellite is a specialized wireless receiver/transmitter that is launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the earth. There are hundreds of satellites currently in operation. They are used for such diverse purposes as weather forecasting, television broadcast, amateur radio communications, Internet communications, and the Global Positioning System, (GPS).
The first artificial satellite, launched by Russia (then known as the Soviet Union) in the late 1950s, was about the size of a basketball. There are three types of communications satellite systems. They are categorized according to the type of orbit they follow.
A geostationary satellite orbits the earth directly over the equator, approximately 22,000 miles up. At this altitude, one complete trip around the earth (relative to the sun) takes 24 hours. Thus, the satellite remains over the same spot on the earth's surface at all times, and stays fixed in the sky from any point on the surface from which it can be "seen." A single geostationary satellite can "see" approximately 40 percent of the earth's surface. Three such satellites spaced at equal intervals (120 angular degrees apart); can provide coverage of the entire civilized world. A geostationary satellite can be accessed using a dish antenna aimed at the spot in the sky where the satellite hovers.
A low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellite system employs a large fleet of "birds," each in a circular orbit at a constant altitude of a few hundred miles. The orbits take the satellites over, or nearly over, the geographic poles. Each revolution takes approximately 90 minutes to a few hours. The fleet is arranged in such a way that, from any point on the surface at any time, at least one satellite is on a line of sight. The entire system operates in a manner similar to the way a cellular telephone functions. The main difference is that the transponders, or wireless receiver/transmitters, are moving rather than fixed, and are in space rather than on the earth. A well-designed LEO system makes it possible for anyone to access the Internet via wireless from any point on the planet, using an antenna no more sophisticated than old-fashioned television "rabbit ears."
Some satellites revolve around the earth in elliptical orbits. These satellites move rapidly when they are near perigee, or their lowest altitude; they move slowly when they are near apogee, or their highest altitude. Such "birds" are used by amateur radio operators, and by some commercial and government services. They require directional antennas whose orientation must be constantly adjusted to follow the satellite's path across the sky.
DSNG
Satellite newsgathering (SNG) is the use of mobile communications equipment for worldwide news casting. Mobile units are usually vans equipped with advanced, two-way audio and video transmitters and receivers, using dish antennas that can be aimed at geostationary satellites.
The earliest SNG equipment used analog modulation, similar to conventional television and radio. The technology first demonstrated its capability during the war between England and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1982. Analog SNG was used extensively during the Desert Shield and Desert Storm operations in the Persian Gulf. During the 1990s, digital modulation supplanted analog modulation, giving rise to the newer technology of digital satellite news gathering (DSNG).
A modern DSNG van is a sophisticated affair, capable of deployment practically anywhere in the civilized world. Signals are beamed between a geostationary satellite and the van, and between the satellite and a control room run by a broadcast station or network. In the most advanced systems, Internet Protocol (IP) is used.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to exchange and manipulate files over a TCP/IP based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and server applications. Applications were originally interactive command-line tools with standardized command syntax, but graphical user interfaces have been developed for all desktop operating systems in use today. FTP is also often used as an application component to automatically transfer files for program internal functions. FTP can be used with user-based password authentication or with anonymous user access. The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a similar, but simplified, not interoperable, and unauthenticated version of FTP.
OPTICAL FIBER
An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.
Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF).
Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-
Distance communication links are for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 meters (1,800 ft).
Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.
Microwave transmission
Microwave transmission refers to the technique of transmitting information over microwave frequencies, using various integrated technologies. The portion of the microwave spectrum called millimeter wave is highly susceptible to attenuation by the atmosphere (especially during wet weather).
Microwave link
A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations, which can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart. Microwave links are commonly used by television broadcasters to transmit programmes across a country, for instance, or from an outside broadcast back to a studio.
Video Phone
A videophone is a telephone with a video screen, and is capable of full duplex (bi-directional) video and audio transmissions for communication between people in real-time.
At the dawn of the technology, videotelephony also included image phones which would exchange still images between units every few seconds over conventional POTS-type telephone lines, essentially the same as slow scan TV systems.
Direct-broadcast satellite
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS) is a term used to refer to satellite television broadcasts intended for home reception, also referred to more broadly as direct-to-home signals. The expression direct-to-home or DTH was, initially, meant to distinguish the transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable television distribution services that sometimes carried on the same satellite. The term predates DBS satellites and is often used in reference to services carried by lower power satellites which required larger dishes (1.7m diameter or greater) for reception.
HDTV (High-Definition Television)
Often mistakenly used as a generic description of all digital television, HDTV specifically refers to the highest-resolution formats of the 18 original DTV formats. Although there still is not 100% agreement among manufacturers, retailers, journalists, etc., only 1,080-line interlaced (1080i) or 720-line progressive (720p) broadcasts are generally considered to be true HDTV.
MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group)
The organization charged with developing video and audio encoding standards. On the video front, consumers are most likely to encounter the MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 compression formats, or "codecs." These formats are capable of producing very high quality video by employing an adaptive, variable bit rate process that can allocate more bits for complex scenes involving a lot of motion, while reducing the bits in static scenes.
MPEG-2: Used for over-the-air digital television broadcasts, standard DVDs, some Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD discs, and small-dish satellite TV (DIRECTV and DISH).
MPEG-4: This newer format is more efficient than MPEG-2, meaning it can deliver the same picture quality as MPEG-2 using a lower bit rate. Some Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs, and newer DIRECTV and DISH satellite gear use MPEG-4.
NTSC (National Television System Committee)
The North American 525-line analog broadcast TV standard, which was established over 50 years ago. Although it is referred to as a "525-line" standard, we are only able to see 480 lines on a TV display. The ATSC digital broadcast standard replaced NTSC as of June 12, 2009. PAL (PHASE ALTERNATING LINE.) and SECAM (sequential couleur Avec Memoire
or Sequential Color with Memory) are used in other parts of the world.
Terrestrial television is a mode of television broadcasting which does not involve satellite transmission or via underground cables—typically through the atmosphere from a transmitting antenna.
Terrestrial Television.
Terrestrial television broadcasting dates back to the very beginnings of television as a medium itself with the first long-distance public television broadcast.
There was virtually no other method of television delivery until the 1950s with the beginnings of cable television, or community antenna television (CATV). The first non-terrestrial method of delivering television signals that in no way depended on a signal originating from a traditional terrestrial source began with the use of communications satellites during the 1960s and 1970s.
Network
A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among devices connected to the network. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the design of the "Advanced Research Projects Agency Network" (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the first operational computer network in the world. Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s.
CONNECTION METHOD
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as Optical fiber, Ethernet, Wireless, HomePNA, Power line communication or G.hn. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.
ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.
Cable television
Cable television is a system of providing television to consumers via radio frequency signals transmitted to televisions through fixed optical fibers or coaxial cables as opposed to the over-the-air method used in traditional television broadcasting (via radio waves) in which a television antenna is required. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephony, and similar non-television services may also be provided.
The abbreviation CATV is often used to mean "Cable TV". It originally stood for Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.
3D TV
3D-ready TV sets are those that can operate in 3D mode (in addition to regular 2D mode), in conjunction with LCD shutter glasses, where the TV tells the glasses which eye should see the image being exhibited at the moment, creating a stereoscopic image. These TV sets usually support HDMI 1.4 and a minimum (input and output) refresh rate of 120Hz; glasses may be sold separately.
Mitsubishi and Samsung utilize DLP technology from Texas Instruments. Many companies are planning to launch the 3D television sets in the market by the end of 2010.
Technological convergence
Technological convergence is the tendency for different technological systems to evolve towards performing similar tasks.
Convergence can refer to previously separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video that now share resources and interact with each other, synergistically creating new efficiencies.
Today, we are surrounded by a multi-level convergent media world where all modes of communication and information are continually reforming to adapt to the enduring demands of technologies, “changing the way we create, consume, learn and interact with each other”.
Convergence in this instance is defined as the interlinking of computing and other information technologies, media content and communication networks that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the Internet as well as the activities, products and services that have emerged in the digital media space.
Many experts view this as simply being the tip of the iceberg, as all facets of institutional activity and social life such as business, government, art, journalism, health and education are increasingly being carried out in these digital media spaces across a growing network of ICT devices.
Technological Convergence can also refer to the phenomena of a group of technologies developed for one use being utilized in many different contexts. This often happens to military technology as well as most types of machine tools and now silicon chips.
Since technology has evolved faster in the past ten years or so, companies are beginning to converge technologies to create demand for new products. This would include phone companies integrating 3G on their phones. Television in the mid 20th century converged the technologies of movies and radio, and is now being converged with the mobile phone industry. Phone calls are also being made with the use of personal computers. Converging technologies seems to be squashing many types of demanded technologies into one. Mobile phones are becoming manufactured to not only carry out phone calls, text messages, but also hold images, videos, music, television, camera, and multimedia of all types. Manufacturers are now integrating more advanced features such as video recording, gps receivers, data storage and security mechanisms into the traditional cell phone.
These paradigm shifts are ongoing in the media, and often occur from time to time as the technology to create better devices evolves. It was predicted in the 1990s that a digital revolution would take place, and that old media would be pushed to one side by new media. Broadcasting is increasingly being replaced by the Internet, enabling consumers all over the world the freedom to access their preferred media content more easily and at a more available rate than ever before.
New media
New media is a term meant to encompass the emergence of digital, computerized, or networked information and communication technologies in the later part of the 20th century. Most technologies described as "new media" are digital, often having characteristics of being manipulatable, networkable, dense, compressible, interactive and impartial. Some examples may be the Internet, websites, computer multimedia, computer games, CD-ROMS, and DVDs. New media is not television programs, feature films, magazines, books, or paper-based publications.
Basic ‘Grammar’ of Television and Film
Television and film use certain common conventions often referred to as the 'grammar' of these audiovisual media. This list includes some of the most important conventions for conveying meaning through particular camera and editing techniques (as well as some of the specialized vocabulary of film production).
Conventions are not rules: expert practitioners break them for deliberate effect, which is one of the rare occasions that we become aware of what the convention is.
Camera Techniques: Distance and Angle
Long shot (LS). Shot which shows all or most of a large subject and usually much of the surroundings.
Extreme Long Shot (ELS).In this type of shot the camera is at its furthest distance from the subject, emphasizing the background.
Medium Long Shot (MLS). In the case of a standing actor, the lower frame line cuts off his feet and ankles. Some documentaries with social themes favor keeping people in the longer shots, keeping social circumstances rather than the individual as the focus of attention.
Establishing shot. Opening shot or sequence, frequently an exterior 'General View' as an Extreme Long Shot (ELS). Used to set the scene.
Medium shots. Medium Shot or Mid-Shot (MS). In such a shot, the subject or actor and its setting occupy roughly equal areas in the frame. In the case of the standing actor, the lower frame passes through the waist. There is space for hand gestures to be seen.
Medium Close Shot (MCS): The setting can still be seen. The lower frame line passes through the chest of the actor. Medium shots are frequently used for the tight presentation of two actors (the two shot), or with dexterity three (the three shot).
Close-up (CU). A picture, which shows a fairly small part of the scene, such as a character's face, in great detail so that it fills the screen. It abstracts the subject from a context.
MCU (Medium Close-Up). Head and shoulders.
BCU (Big Close-Up). Forehead to chin. Close-ups focus attention on a person's feelings or reactions, and are sometimes used in interviews to show people in a state of emotional excitement, grief or joy. In interviews, the use of BCUs may emphasize the interviewee's tension and suggest lying or guilt.
BCUs are rarely used for important public figures; MCUs are preferred, the camera providing a sense of distance. Note that in western cultures (now penetrating in the eastern), the space within about 24 inches is generally felt to be private space, and BCUs may be invasive.
Angle of shot. The direction and height from which the camera takes the scene. The convention is that in 'factual' programs subjects should be shot from eye-level only. In a high angle, the camera looks down at a character, making the viewer feel more powerful than him or her, or suggesting an air of detachment. A low angle shot places camera below the character, exaggerating his or her importance. An overhead shot is one made from a position directly above the action.
Viewpoint. The apparent distance and angle from which the camera views and records the subject. Not to be confused with point-of-view shots or subjective camera shots.
Point-of-view shot (POV). A shot made from a camera position close to the line of sight of a performer who is to be watching the action shown in the point-of-view shot.
Two-shot. A shot of two people together.
Selective focus. Rendering only part of the action field in sharp focus using a shallow depth of field. A shift of focus from foreground to background or vice versa is called rack focus.
Soft focus. An effect in which the sharpness of an image, or part of it, is reduced by the use of an optical device.
Wide-angle shot. A shot of a broad field of action taken with a wide-angle lens.
Tilted shot. When the camera is tilted on its axis so that normally vertical lines appear slanted to the left or right, ordinary expectations are frustrated. Such shots are often used in mystery and suspense films to create a sense of unease in the viewer.
CAMERA TECHNIQUES: MOVEMENT
Zoom. In zooming in the camera does not move; the lens is focused down from a long shot to a close-up whilst the picture is still being shown. It may be used to surprise the viewer. Zooming out reveals more of the scene (perhaps where a character is, or to whom he or she is speaking) as the shot widens. Zooming in rapidly brings not only the subject but also the background hurtling towards the viewer, which can be disconcerting. Zooming in and then out creates an ugly 'yo-yo' effect.
Following pan. The camera swivels to follow a moving subject. A space is left in front of the subject: the pan 'leads' rather than 'trails'. A pan usually begins and ends with a few seconds of still picture to give greater impact. The speed of a pan across a subject creates a particular mood as well as establishing the viewer's relationship with the subject.
Surveying pan. The camera slowly searches the scene: may build to a climax or anticlimax.
Tilt. A vertical movement of the camera - up or down- while the camera. Crab. The camera moves (crabs) right or left.
Tracking (dollying). Tracking involves the camera itself being moved smoothly towards or away from the subject (contrast with zooming). Tracking in (like zooming) draws the viewer into a closer, more intense relationship with the subject; moving away tends to create emotional distance. Tracking back tends to divert attention to the edges of the screen. The speed of tracking may affect the viewer's mood. Rapid tracking (especially tracking in) is exciting; tracking back relaxes interest. In a dramatic narrative, we may sometimes be drawn forward towards a subject against our will. Camera movement parallel to a moving subject permits speed without drawing attention to the camera itself.
Hand-held camera. A hand-held camera can produce a jerky, bouncy, unsteady image, which may create a sense of immediacy or chaos. Its use is a form of subjective treatment.
Process shot. A shot made of action in front of a rear projection screen having on it still or moving images as a background.
EDITING TECHNIQUES
Cut. Sudden change of shot from one viewpoint or location to another. On television, cuts occur on average about every 3 to 8 seconds as convention. Cutting may:
1. Change the scene;
2. Compress time;
3. Vary the point of view; or
4. Build up an image or idea.
There is always a reason for a cut, and you should ask yourself what the reason is. Less abrupt transitions are achieved with the fade, dissolve, and wipe
Matched cut. In a 'matched cut' a familiar relationship between the shots may make the change seem smooth:
1. Continuity of direction;
2. Completed action;
3. A similar centre of attention in the frame;
4. A one-step change of shot size (e.g. long to medium);
5. A change of angle (conventionally at least 30 degrees).
The cut is usually made on an action (for example, a person begins to turn towards a door in one shot; the next shot, taken from the doorway, catches him completing the turn). Because the viewer's eye is absorbed by the action, he is unlikely to notice the movement of the cut itself.
Jump cut. Abrupt switch from one scene to another, which may be used deliberately to make a dramatic point. Sometimes boldly used to begin or end action. Alternatively, it may be result of poor pictorial continuity, perhaps from deleting a section.
Motivated cut. Cut made just at the point where what has occurred makes the viewer immediately want to see something, which is not currently visible (causing us, for instance, to accept compression of time). A typical feature is the shot/reverse shot technique (cuts coinciding with changes of speaker). Editing and camera work appear to be determined by the action. It is intimately associated with the 'privileged point of view'.
Cutting rate. Frequent cuts may be used as deliberate interruptions to shock, surprise or emphasize.
Cutting rhythm. A cutting rhythm may be progressively shortened to increase tension. Cutting rhythm may create an exciting, lyrical or staccato effect in the viewer.
Cross-cut. A cut from one line of action to another. Also applied to sequences that use such cuts.
Cutaway/cutaway shot (CA). A bridging intercut shot between two shots of the same subject. It represents a secondary activity occurring at the same time as the main action. It may be preceded by a definite look or glance out of frame by a participant, or it may show something of which those in the preceding shot are unaware. It may be used to avoid the technical ugliness of a 'jump cut' where there would be uncomfortable jumps in time, place or viewpoint. It is often used to shortcut the passing of time.
Reaction shot. Any shot, usually a cutaway, in which a participant reacts to action, which has just occurred.
Insert/insert shot. A bridging close-up shot inserted into the larger context, offering an essential detail of the scene (or a reshooting of the action with a different shot size or angle.)
Buffer shot (neutral shot). A bridging shot (normally taken with a separate camera) to separate two shots which would have reversed the continuity of direction.
Fade, dissolve (mix). Both fades and dissolves are gradual transitions between shots. In a fade the picture gradually appears from (fades in) or disappears to (fades out) a blank screen. A slow fade-in is a quiet introduction to a scene; a slow fade-out is a peaceful ending. Time lapses are often suggested by a slow fade-out and fade-in. A dissolve (or mix) involves fading out one picture while fading up another on top of it. The impression is of an image merging into and then becoming another. A slow mix usually suggests differences in time and place. Defocus or ripple dissolves are sometimes used to indicate flashbacks in time.
Super impositions. Two of more images placed directly over each other (e.g. eye and a camera lens to create a visual metaphor).
Wipe. An optical effect marking a transition between two shots. It appears to supplant an image by wiping it off the screen (as a line or in some complex pattern, such as by appearing to turn a page). The wipe is a technique, which draws attention to itself and acts as a clear marker of change.
Inset. An inset is a special visual effect whereby a reduced shot is superimposed on the main shot. Often used to reveal a close-up detail of the main shot.
Split screen. The division of the screen into parts that can show the viewer several images at the same time (sometimes the same action from slightly different perspectives, sometimes similar actions at different times). This can convey the excitement and frenzy of certain activities, but it can also overload the viewer.
Stock shot. Footage already available and used for another purpose than the one for which it was originally filmed.
INVISIBLE EDITING: CONTINUITY EDITING.
Manipulating time
Screen time: a period of time represented by events within a film (e.g. a day, a week).
Subjective time. The time experienced or felt by a character in a film, as revealed through camera movement and editing (e.g., when a frightened person's flight from danger is prolonged).
Compressed time. The compression of time between sequences or scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipulation of time in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a dramatic narrative, if climbing a staircase is not a significant part of the plot, a shot of a character starting up the stairs may then cut to him entering a room. The logic of the situation and our experience of medium tells us that the room is somewhere at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be compressed into seconds. Time may also be compressed between cutaways in parallel editing. More subtle compression can occur after reaction shots or close-ups have intervened.
Long take. A single shot (or take, or run of the camera) which lasts for a relatively lengthy period of time. The long take has an 'authentic' feel since it is not inherently dramatic.
Simultaneous time. Events in different places can be presented as occurring at the same moment, by parallel editing or cross-cutting, by multiple images or split-screen. The conventional clue to indicate that events or shots are taking place at the same time is that there is no progression of shots: shots are either inserted into the main action or alternated with each other until the strands are somehow united.
Slow motion. Action, which takes place on the screen at a slower rate than the rate at which the action took place before the camera. This is used: a) to make a fast action visible; b) to make a familiar action strange; c) to emphasize a dramatic moment. It can have a lyric and romantic quality or it can amplify violence.
Accelerated motion (under cranking). This is used: a) to make a slow action visible; b) to make a familiar action funny; c) to increase the thrill of speed.
Reverse motion. Reproducing action backwards, for comic, magical or explanatory effect.
Replay. An action sequence repeated, often in slow motion, commonly featured in the filming of sport to review a significant event.
Freeze-frame. This gives the image the appearance of a still photograph. Clearly not a naturalistic device.
Flashback. A break in the chronology of a narrative in which events from the past are disclosed to the viewer. Formerly indicated conventionally with defocus or ripple dissolves.
Flash-forward. Much less common than the flashback. Not normally associated with a particular character. Associated with objective treatments.
Extended or expanded time/overlapping action. The expansion of time can be accomplished by intercutting a series of shots, or by filming the action from different angles and editing them together. Part of an action may be repeated from another viewpoint, e.g. a character is shown from the inside of a building opening a door and the next shot, from the outside, shows him opening it again. Used nakedly, this device disrupts the audience's sense of real time. The technique may be used unobtrusively to stretch time, perhaps to exaggerate, for dramatic effect, the time taken to walk down a corridor. Sometimes combined with slow motion.
Ambiguous time. Within the context of a well-defined time-scheme sequences may occur which are ambiguous in time. This is most frequently communicated through dissolves and superimpositions.
Universal time. This is deliberately created to suggest universal relevance. Ideas rather than examples are emphasized. Context may be disrupted by frequent cuts and by the extensive use of close-ups and other shots, which do not reveal a specific background.
USE OF SOUND
Direct sound. Live sound. This may have a sense of freshness, spontaneity and 'authentic' atmosphere, but it may not be acoustically ideal.
Studio sound. Sound recorded in the studio to improve the sound quality, eliminating unwanted background noise ('ambient sound'), e.g. dubbed dialogue. This may be then mixed with live environmental sound.
Selective sound. The removal of some sounds and the retention of others to make significant sounds more recognizable, or for dramatic effect - to create atmosphere, meaning and emotional nuance. Selective sound (and amplification) may make us aware of a watch or a bomb ticking. This can sometimes be a subjective device, leading us to identify with a character: to hear what he or she hears. Sound may be so selective that the lack of ambient sound can make it seem artificial or expressionistic.
Sound perspective/aural perspective. The impression of distance in sound usually created through the use of selective sound. Note that even in live television a microphone is deliberately positioned, just as the camera is, and therefore may privilege certain participants.
Sound bridge. Adding to continuity through sound, by running sound (narration, dialogue or music) from one shot across a cut to another shot to make the action seem uninterrupted.
Dubbed dialogue. Post-recording the voice-track in the studio, the actors matching their words to the on-screen lip movements. Not confined to foreign-language dubbing.
Wild track (asynchronous sound). Sound, this was self-evidently recorded separately from the visuals with which it is shown. For example, a studio voice-over added to a visual sequence later.
Parallel (synchronous) sound. Sound 'caused' by some event on screen, and which matches the action.
Commentary/voice-over narration. Commentary spoken off-screen over the shots shown. The voice-over can be used to:
1. Introduce particular parts of a program;
2. To add extra information not evident from the picture;
3. To interpret the images for the audience from a particular point of view;
4. To link parts of a sequence or program together.
The commentary confers authority on a particular interpretation, particularly if the tone is moderate, assured and reasoned. In dramatic films, it may be the voice of one of the characters, unheard by the others.
Sound effects (SFX). Any sound from any source other than synchronized dialogue, narration or music. Dubbed-in sound effects can add to the illusion of reality: a stage- set door may gain from the addition of the sound of a heavy door slamming or creaking.
Music. Music helps to establish a sense of the pace of the accompanying scene. The rhythm of music usually dictates the rhythm of the cuts. The emotional coloring of the music also reinforces the mood of the scene. Background music is asynchronous music that accompanies a film. It is not normally intended to be noticeable. Conventionally, background music accelerates for a chase sequence, becomes louder to underscore a dramatically important action. Through repetition, it can also link shots, scenes and sequences. Foreground music is often synchronous music which finds its source within the screen events (e.g. from a radio, TV, stereo or musicians in the scene). It may be a more credible and dramatically plausible way of bringing music into a program than background music (a string orchestra sometimes seems bizarre in a Western).
Silence. The juxtaposition of an image and silence can frustrate expectations, provoke odd, self-conscious responses, intensify our attention, make us apprehensive, or make us feel dissociated from reality.
GRAPHICS
Text. Titles appear at or near the start of the program. Their style - typeface, size, color, background and pace - (together with music) can establish expectations about the atmosphere and style of the program. Credits listing the main actors, the director, and so on, are normally shown at or near the beginning, whilst those listing the rest of the actors and program makers are normally shown at the end. Some American narrative series begin with a lengthy pre-credit sequence. Captions are commonly used in news and documentaries to identify speakers, in documentaries, documentary dramas and dramatic narratives to indicate dates or locations. Subtitles at the bottom of the screen are usually used for translation or for the benefit of the hearing-impaired.
Graphics. Maps, graphs and diagrams are associated primarily with news, documentary and educational programs.
Animation. Creating an illusion of movement, by inter-cutting stills, using graphics with movable sections, using step-by-step changes, or control wire activation.
NARRATIVE STYLE
Subjective treatment. The camera treatment is called 'subjective' when the viewer is treated as a participant (e.g. when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees, but also how he or she sees it. A temporary 'first-person' use of camera as the character can be effective in conveying unusual states of mind or powerful experiences, such as dreaming, remembering, or moving very fast. If overused, it can draw too much attention to the camera. Moving the camera (or zooming) is a subjective camera effect, especially if the movement is not gradual or smooth.
Objective treatment. The 'objective point of view' involves treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the 'privileged point of view’, which involves watching from omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it is an objective camera effect.
Parallel development/parallel editing/cross-cutting. An intercut sequence of shots in which the camera shifts back and forth between one scene and another. Two distinct but related events seem to be happening at approximately the same time. A chase is a good example. Each scene serves as a cutaway for the other. Adds tension and excitement to dramatic action.
'Invisible editing'. This is the omniscient style of the realist feature films developed in Hollywood. The vast majority of narrative films are now edited in this way. The cuts are intended to be unobtrusive except for special dramatic shots. It supports rather than dominates the narrative: the story and the behavior of its characters are the centre of attention. The technique gives the impression that the edits always required are motivated by the events in the 'reality' that the camera is recording rather than the result of a desire to tell a story in a particular way. The 'seamlessness' convinces us of its 'realism', but its devices include:
The use of matched cuts (rather than jump cuts);
1. Motivated cuts;
2. Changes of shot through camera movement;
3. Long takes;
4. The use of the sound bridge;
5. Parallel development.
The editing is not really 'invisible', but the conventions have become so familiar to visual literates that they no longer consciously notice them.
Talk to camera. The sight of a person looking ('full face') and talking directly at the camera establishes their authority or 'expert' status with the audience. Only certain people are normally allowed to do this, such as announcers, presenters, newsreaders, weather forecasters, interviewers, anchorpersons, and, on special occasions. The words of 'ordinary' people are normally mediated by an interviewer. A short sequence of this kind in a 'factual' program is called a 'piece to camera'.
Tone. The mood or atmosphere of a program (e.g. ironic, comic, nostalgic, romantic).
Shot. A single run of the camera or the piece of film resulting from such a run.
Sequence. A dramatic unit composed of several scenes, all linked together by their emotional and narrative momentum.
Series. A succession of programmes with a standard format.
Serial. An ongoing story in which each episode takes up where the last one left off. Soap operas are serials.
Vox pop. Short for 'vox populi', Latin for 'voice of the people'. The same question is put to a range of people to give a flavor of 'what ordinary people think' about some issue. Answers are selected and edited together to achieve a rapid-fire stream of opinions.
TRP: TRP is often talked term in broadcast industry. TRP stands for (special) Targeted Research Project
TV, NEWS AND NON-LINEAR EDITING GLOSSARY
.B-roll : This term is a leftover from film days. Refers to pictures (often generic) used to cover a reporter’s voiceover.
Bagger: slang for a piece that will play anytime, usually during a slow season or at the last minute. Other terms: on the shelf, in the can.
Bars: color bars are used to test video signal, to make sure the colors are true and/or match the bars generated from other sources (cameras, control room, video feeds).
Bin: in non-linear editing..one of the (imaginary) file folders you dump your digitized images and clips before you start to edit.
Bins: metaphorical drawers, holding files of digitized tape. In non-linear editing, sections of field tape are digitized (captured) and stored in bins. This sounds confusing but it will become clear with your first edit.
Bird: slang for satellite. “Book the bird” means to make a satellite booking.( because satellites ‘dwell’ in the sky)
bridge: standup in the middle of an item…bridging from one chapter to another.
Capture: another term for digitize or ingest. After you have captured your tape on the computer, you can start your edit.
Control track: A track of electronic pulses, laid down on videotape while shooting or before editing, which maintains continuous time code and enables more complex edits.
Countdown (Academy leader, leader, beeps, d-cue, digital): the "5, 4, 3, 2.." that goes before the start of a taped item.
Double-ender: interview in which the interviewer and guest are in two places, connected by phone. Each phone is connected to an earpiece and a mike.
Cameras in each location roll at once and afterwards the two tapes are cut together. In a true double-ender, the host and guest cannot actually see each other. A satellite or other remote interview, where the host in the studio sees the guest (but guest does not usually see host).
Dropout: When a tape has been used several times (and occasionally when it is new), it may start shedding the particles that record the information. The irregularities on the tape show on screen as dropouts.
EDL: Edit Decision List. In non-linear editing, the EDL is the record of every sound, visual and effects decision made during an edit session. The EDL will guide the machines to res up the final product
EFP, EJ and ENG : Electronic field production, electronic journalism, electronic news gathering. Video recording on the field for news gathering purpose is in short called ENG.
EFX: EFFECT/S (AS IN SPECIAL EFFECTS). ALSO CALLED FX
Executive producer: Senior editorial person on a program or programming unit.
Eyeline: The line from a camera lens (the camera’s eye) to the subject’s eyes. Generally speaking, the eyeline should be neutral, i.e., parallel to the ground.
Feed: When tape or images are fed to another source or location by fiber optic, landlines, microwave, satellite and/or internal computer servers such as CTV’s Gateway. All networks have regularly scheduled news feeds for domestic affiliates, and partners in other countries.
Field tape: tape shot in the field. Usually used to denote original source tape, as opposed to the master or edit pack, containing edited items.
International sound: an unmixed audio track without announcer/reporter voiceover or translation.
Jump cut: a jarring edit, so that the image seems to “jump”. Forbidden for many years, they are now used frequently in various contexts.
Kicker: a light, often funny (or we hope it is) item at the end of the newscast.
News hole: the amount of time available for news in a program. Take away the opening animation, headlines, commercials, sports, weather, promos, stings and credits, and you have the news hole. Same as in print.
Non-linear editing: Tape editing used to be a linear process of dubbing source, or field tape to an edit master. Linear editing is gradually disappearing from television. In non-linear editing, the video and audio information on the field tape is loaded (digitized) into bins in an edit suite’s computer drive, where the (human) editor can put them together without going back and forth through the source tapes.
O/C –Usually this means on-camera.
Reader - a story that is read by an anchor without video.
VO - A story, read by an anchor, with video shown over the anchor's voice.
SOT or Sound (on tape)Byte (or Byte, Sound-on-tape) - A short clip of an interview. Usually between 8-15 seconds long (as standard practice).
VO/SOT or VOSB or VOB - a story that includes an anchor reading with vo over his voice, and includes a sound byte.
Package –(In NTV, a 100% story) A story voiced by a reporter, with that reporter's voice on tape, including both video and sound bytes.
Rundown - The order and timing of a newscast, indicating which stories, segments and commercials will run when, and how long they will run.
Live Shot - A story by a reporter, done live, not on tape, from a different location than the studio.
Tease - A preview of a story, which runs most of the time, just before a commercial.
Cold Open - Beginning a show or a segment with vo and or a sound byte.
Toss - When on anchor or reporter turns over a portion of the show to another anchor or reporter.
Assignment Sheet - The list of stories to be covered for the day.
Wire - Stories sent to different news outlets from around the state and country, via computer.
OTS - Over the shoulder graphic, usually seen over one of the anchor's shoulders as he reads the story. Also called a box.
Lower third graphic - Graphic shown on the bottom of the screen, usually identifying a person or place.
Full Screen Graphic - Graphic taking up the full screen, usually giving information related to the story being told.
Res, res up: In non-linear editing, you will sometimes use low-resolution (low-res) video in your rough cut, to use less space in the computer’s memory. When you re-edit your EDL for a final product, you “res up” to broadcast quality.
Rough-cut: a first-draft edit. Editorial types screen a rough cut and suggest changes. You rarely get a chance to do rough cuts in daily news.
Slug: as in print, the one- or two-word name used to refer to a report.
"Soviet newscast" – snarky description of a long stretch where the newsreader just…reads…. without changing the shot or going to tape, graphics, etc.
Spear: CBC jargon. To “do a spear” is to collect tape, especially interview clips, for another reporter’s piece. When you do spears, you are contributing to a greater cause.
Standup: reporter speaking to camera, usually in the body of a field report.
Sticks: slang for camera tripod.
Stings: production elements in a program, usually promoting an item coming up later. A sting may also be used to smooth out a difficult segue…e.g., from a report on a fatal fire to what’s on downtown this weekend.
Streeters: non-gender-specific version of what used to be called the man-in-the-street interview. Also known as voxpops (Latin: vox populi, voice of the people).
Sweeps – surveying viewers to find out who is watching what.
Teleprompter: autocue
Time code: electronically generated code marking every frame in video. A gift from the gods for shot listing.
Timeline: in non-linear editing, the timeline is the on-screen map of your report. You click-and-drag clips from the bins, into the timeline. The timeline stretches and contracts when you insert or remove a piece of captured/digitized tape.
REFERENCES:
1. MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY: THEORIES OF MEDIA EVOLUTION
Author: W Russell Neuman
2. COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY: THE NEW MEDIA IN SOCIETY
Author: Everett M Rogers
3. GRAMMAR OF THE SHOT
AUTHOR: ROY THOMPSON, CHRISTOPHER J BOWEN
4. DOMESTICATION OF MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY BOOK DESCRIPTION
Author: THOMAS BERKER, MAREN HARTMANN, YVES PUNIE
5. SHOOTING THE STICKBOW
AUTHOR: ANTHONY CAMERA
6. SHOOT TO THRILL
AUTHOR: P J TRACY
7. NONLINEAR EDITING: STORYTELLING, AESTHETICS, & CRAFT
Author: Bryce Button
8. SPECIAL EFFECTS: THE HISTORY AND TECHNIQUE
Author: Richard Rickitt , Ray Harryhausen
9. THE CHANGING FACES OF JOURNALISM
TABLOIDIZATION, TECHNOLOGY AND TRUTHINESS
Author: Barbie Zelizer
10. THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEWS
Author: Martin Conboy
11. INTERNET WEBS
12. CYBNERCOLLEGE.COM
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